Carnot Cycle (PV Diagram)
Concept Note
Efficiency of an ideal Carnot engine is η = \(1- \frac{T_c}{T_h} \). Higher \(T_h\) and lower \(T_c\) give better efficiency.
Wheatstone Bridge
200
Concept Note
When R1/R2 = R3/Rx, output voltage is near zero and the galvanometer stays at null.
PN Junction Diode I-V Characteristics
â– Theoretical curve
â– Operating point
â– Knee voltage
â– Breakdown region
Use the controls to change voltage and bias, then observe the current response.
Concept Note
Forward bias increases current after threshold. Reverse bias keeps current very small until breakdown.